Mandatory Syria
The French Mandate in Syria
Under the terms of the 1916 Sykes-Picot Agreement, Britain and France secretly divided Ottoman territories in the Middle East. Syria, including present-day Lebanon, was assigned to France. The League of Nations formalized this arrangement in 1920, granting France full administrative control. This decision disregarded local aspirations for self-rule, especially after Syrians had declared independence under King Faisal I in March 1920.
France swiftly moved to establish control, defeating Faisal’s forces at the Battle of Maysalun in July 1920. Following this victory, the French dissolved the short-lived Arab Kingdom of Syria and imposed direct rule. They divided Syria into separate political entities, including the State of Damascus, the State of Aleppo, the Alawite State, the Druze State, and Greater Lebanon. This strategy was designed to weaken Syrian unity and prevent a strong, centralized opposition to French rule.
Faisal I of Iraq
Economic Exploitation and Development
While the French introduced some modernization efforts, such as infrastructure projects and administrative reforms, these were primarily designed to serve colonial interests. French companies controlled major economic sectors, including agriculture, transportation, and trade. Syria’s economy remained heavily dependent on France, limiting its ability to develop independent industries or economic policies.
At the same time, economic policies under the mandate exacerbated rural poverty and widened class divisions. Heavy taxation and land policies favored large landowners over small farmers, fueling rural discontent and contributing to the nationalist movement.
The Great Syrian Revolt of 1925-1927
One of the most significant events during the French mandate was the Great Syrian Revolt, a widespread uprising that erupted in 1925. The revolt was led by various nationalist factions, including Druze rebels under Sultan al-Atrash, urban nationalists from Damascus, and other anti-colonial groups. The movement sought to end French rule and establish an independent Syria.
The rebellion began in the Druze region of southern Syria but quickly spread to Damascus and other parts of the country. French forces responded with overwhelming military power, using aerial bombardments and heavy artillery to suppress the uprising. Damascus, the heart of Syrian resistance, was shelled extensively in 1925, leading to significant destruction and loss of life.
Though the revolt was eventually crushed by 1927, it demonstrated Syria’s strong nationalist sentiment and forced France to reconsider its approach to governance. In response to continued pressure, the French introduced a series of constitutional reforms, though these did not grant full independence.
Political and Social Impact
The French mandate deepened divisions within Syrian society. By implementing a policy of divide and rule, the French exploited ethnic and sectarian differences, particularly between Alawites, Druze, Christians, and Sunni Arabs. This fragmentation hindered the development of a unified Syrian national identity and contributed to long-term political instability.
Additionally, France established a military force composed largely of minority groups, such as Alawites and Druze, which created lasting tensions between these communities and the Sunni Arab majority. This legacy of sectarian divisions would later influence Syria’s post-independence politics, as different groups vied for power in the newly sovereign state.
The Path to Independence and the Legacy of Mandatory Syria
By the 1930s, growing nationalist opposition to French rule intensified. Syrian leaders, particularly from the National Bloc, pushed for greater autonomy and negotiated with France for independence. In 1936, France agreed to a treaty that promised eventual independence, but World War II delayed its implementation.
During the war, the Vichy French government initially controlled Syria, but Free French forces, with British support, occupied the country in 1941. In 1943, Syria held elections, and the newly formed government, led by Shukri al-Quwatli, demanded full sovereignty. However, French troops remained in Syria, leading to further tensions. In 1945, nationalist protests erupted, and French forces once again bombarded Damascus. Finally, under international pressure, France withdrew its troops in 1946, granting Syria full independence.
The mandate system had a lasting impact on Syria, shaping its political, social, and economic landscape. While it introduced some administrative and infrastructural changes, it primarily served French colonial interests and sowed deep divisions within Syrian society. The nationalist movements that emerged under French rule laid the foundation for Syria’s struggle for independence, but the mandate’s legacy of sectarian divisions and centralized control influenced the country’s post-independence trajectory. The challenges imposed by the mandate system contributed to Syria’s later political instability, authoritarian rule, and ongoing struggles for national unity.
Terms to Know
Alawites – A sect of Shia Islam mainly found in western Syria. The French favored the Alawites in the military and government to weaken Sunni Arab influence, which led to tensions between religious groups.
The Alawite State (1920–1936) – A region in western Syria, created by the French to divide the country and control different religious groups separately. It was home to many Alawites, who later became politically powerful in Syria.
Arab – A person who belongs to the ethnic group that primarily speaks Arabic and shares cultural traditions. In Syria, Arabs were mostly Sunni Muslims, but there were also Alawites, Druze, and Christian Arabs with different political views.
Christians – A religious minority in Syria, including Maronites, Greek Orthodox, and other Christian groups. Many Syrian Christians supported French rule, while others joined Arab nationalist movements.
Damascus – The capital of Syria and a major center of Arab nationalism. Damascus was the heart of resistance against French rule and the site of the 1925 Great Syrian Revolt, led by Syrian nationalists like Sultan al-Atrash.
Druze – A small religious minority in Syria, with beliefs that are separate from Islam and Christianity. The Druze lived mainly in southern Syria and often resisted French rule, especially in the 1925 Great Syrian Revolt.
The Druze State (1921–1936) – A region in southern Syria created by the French to weaken Arab nationalist movements. The Druze later revolted against the French in 1925, led by Sultan al-Atrash.
Faisal I – A Hashemite prince who ruled the Arab Kingdom of Syria in 1920 before the French defeated him and took control. He later became king of Iraq with British support.
Greater Lebanon (1920) – A new country created by the French by expanding the old Ottoman province of Mount Lebanon. It included more Muslims than before, leading to sectarian divisions between Christians and Muslims.
The National Bloc – A Syrian nationalist political group that opposed French rule and pushed for independence through diplomacy. Led by Shukri al-Quwatli, the bloc worked with France to gain Syrian independence in 1946.
The State of Aleppo (1920–1925) – A northern region of Syria created by the French, including the city of Aleppo. It was mostly Sunni Muslim but had economic and political tensions with Damascus.
The State of Damascus (1920–1925) – A central Syrian region created by the French, including the capital, Damascus. It was mostly Sunni Muslim and a center for Arab nationalist resistance.
Sectarian – Divisions based on religious or ethnic identity. The French ruled Syria by dividing it into smaller states based on religion, which increased sectarian tensions between Sunni Arabs, Alawites, Druze, and Christians.
Shukri al-Quwatli – A Syrian nationalist leader who opposed French rule and later became Syria’s first president after independence in 1946. He supported Arab unity and opposed Western influence in the region.
The Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916) – A secret agreement between Britain and France during World War I to divide the Middle East into areas of European control. Under this deal, France got Syria and Lebanon, while Britain controlled Iraq, Transjordan, and Palestine.
Sultan al-Atrash – A Druze leader who led the Great Syrian Revolt (1925–1927) against French rule. He became a symbol of Syrian resistance and nationalism.
Sunni Arabs – The largest religious and ethnic group in Syria. Sunni Arabs led many nationalist movements against French rule but were politically divided between different factions.
Vichy French (1940–1941) – The French government that ruled Syria during World War II and collaborated with Nazi Germany. In 1941, British and Free French forces invaded Syria and removed the Vichy French, allowing Syria to move toward independence.